The Current State of Ethics in Big Business free essay sample

The paper examines in detail the current issues of morals in huge business and the problem moral conduct can make for the organization. This paper examines the current issues of business morals in the structure that enterprises have since quite a while ago battled with corporate social obligation and the abrogating partnership objective to make a benefit. The paper reasons that, in spite of the harm done to the notoriety of huge business morals by organizations like Enron and WorldCom, the standpoint for the proceeded with consolation and advancement of morally cognizant organizations is acceptable. The creator expresses that business and government pioneers are building up a business domain that is all the more tolerating and empowering of morally cognizant organizations. Chapter by chapter guide Presentation Corporate Social Responsibility and Individual Rights Business Ethics and Enron Business Ethics at WorldCom Inc. Forestalling Future Enron and WorldCom?s Exercises from Enron and WorldCom Moral Corporations and Profit End The idea of corporate social obligation has been bantered for whatever length of time that the entrepreneur framework has existed, and is one of the most significant foundations of business morals. We will compose a custom paper test on The Current State of Ethics in Big Business or on the other hand any comparable point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Corporate social duty incorporates all choices that are made inside an association that are connected to moral qualities, and consistence with existing laws. Corporate social duty is intently attached to the regard for people and networks, creatures and plants, and nature all in all.

Strategic management analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Key administration investigation - Essay Example The organization is the biggest espresso chain store on the planet and has its activities in 61 nations with in excess of 20000 stores. The item arrangement of Starbucks incorporates hot and cold beverages, sandwiches, espresso beans, snacks, cakes, and so forth. The organization has its establishment in Seattle long time in 1971 as a roaster and retailer of nearby espresso bean and has extended to a huge degree from that point forward. The organization is the market head in its espresso section and its essential procedures are fitness based methodology and the attention system dependent on which it increases the value of its items and builds up the picture of extravagance and polish (About Us 2012). The report presents the key administration investigation of Starbucks considering its universal section out of the three portions. The nation picked in its worldwide portion is UK. Starbucks entered the UK showcase in 1998 with the venture of $83 million and dispatch of in excess of 60 s tores (Lussier 2008). The current bistro advertise condition of UK is serious with nearness of different players in the market including marked bistros, autonomous retail locations and little espresso stores introducing an intense rivalry to Starbucks (Weston 2009). The report investigations the outer condition of Starbucks as for UK espresso advertise, vital ability of the organization and the vital fit with the assistance of appropriate models, for example, Porter’s five powers, esteem chain examination and PESTEL examination. Errand A (1): Analysis of Starbucks outer condition Macro-condition: PESTEL Analysis Political: Impact 3 of 5-Coffee beans is developed in the creating nations. The significant angles about which the conversations prop up on in the UK world of politics are work conditions and kid work. The political impact is likewise high through taxes and expenses (Press Release †Project Cafe11 UK 2011). Financial: Impact 4 of 5-The significant business challen ge for the business all in all is identified with the monetary downturn of 2008. Attributable to the downturn time frame, buyers have gotten significantly more wary of their optional uses because of the nearness of high joblessness and obligations on people (Weston 2009). Socio-social: Impact 5 of 5-People in UK spends increasingly more on espresso. It is remembered for their pattern to go out and have some espresso. The use on tea by UK individuals is 623 million pounds, while on espresso it is 738 million pounds. Clients visit the cafés for having an espresso drink as well as for plunking down and make some casual memories out of their day by day frenzied daily schedule (The Future of the Coffee Market 2012). Mechanical: Impact 4 of 5-Technology has gotten progressed as better just as less expensive espresso machines are accessible to make a decent espresso at home, for example Senseo. Ecological: Impact 3 of 5-There is an extensive increment in the natural mindfulness because of which espresso organizations in UK need to stay worried about the manner in which their espresso beans are delivered and simmered, the method of the structuring of the flexibly chain and the way in which they plan lastly sell their espresso items (Weston 2009). Lawful: Impact 3 of 5-

Three Things That Are Awesome

Three Things That Are Awesome Numbers 1: MEnging I graduated in June, but Im not gone yet! Due to a great program in Course 6 (Electrical Engineering and Computer Science) at MIT, I am able to stay on to complete a Masters Degree. The M.Eng program in Course 6 is something students can apply for in their junior year. They then start to integrate graduate-level courses with their regular courseload. This puts them in position to finish all of the requirements for the Masters degree as well as the Bachelors in only 5 years. (If the two degrees were completed sequentially, they would generally take a total of 6 years.) Besides the time-savings, I am excited about this program because it offers a way to cap off a lot of theoretical learning with one big project that requires actual application of the ideas. I also happen to have absolutely *amazing* advisers. Were working understanding how humans produce speech more on that in a later post. Number 2: Learning to Teach Ive joined the Scheller Teacher Education Program (STEP) this fall. Its basically a crash-course series of classes on education in theory and practice. The theory side covers issues such as, Should we be developing students creative thinking skills or giving them practical lessons and vocational training? The practice side teaches us the nitty gritty of discipline, lesson planning, and how to get students attention. STEP also includes classroom observation, and eventually teaching in nearby schools! Number 3: Randomites Though Im living in an apartment now, I still take time to go back to Random Hall. One must-experience event at Random is their fall rush, designed to introduce freshmen to their unique culture. I attended a great new event this year, led by ch3cooh 11. There were three parts to the event: building MIT out of candy, rolling it up into katamari, and eating it! Here are some pictures of the process shot by Zev 08, M.Eng 09: Step 1: Building MIT out of candy. The big peanutbuttery gob with the Hersheys kisses on it is labeled Stata. Nearby are graham cracker representations of the two parallel buildings of East Campus and the Green building (the tallest building in Cambridge!) You can see the blue jello version of the Charles River flowing through the center. Im not sure whose idea the snow-capped mountains or volcano were I havent seen them around campus. Step 2: Rolling it up into katamari. We started with a small glob of chocolate and marshmallow mixture, and rolled our katamari around the board while listening to remixes of the song (the song can be heard on this Youtube video. Step 3: Eating it! This was harder for some people than for others Post Tagged #Random Hall

Supply and Demand Simulation Paper - 1130 Words

Supply and Demand Simulation Paper Principles of Microeconomics 365 Matthew J. Angner June 1, 2010 University of Phoenix Online Introduction The supply and demand simulation was based on the management of rental apartments by GoodLife Management. The apartments are in a fictitious town called Atlantis. Topics that will be reviewed in this paper include changes in supply and demand, how shifts in supply and demand affects decision-making, key points from the reading assignments that were emphasized in the simulation, application of the supply and demand concepts at the author’s workplace, how price elasticity of demand affects the decision-making of the consumer and to the organization, and a summary of the results of the†¦show more content†¦109). The limit is usually below the equilibrium price. Price ceilings can cause issues in the equilibrium between supply and demand. If the price for the apartments were at the ceiling price, and the demand for the apartments increase, the supply would then begin to decrease. The simulation showed that this scenario escalated and the quantity demanded exceeded the quantity available and a shortage will continue. Application of Supply and Demand Concepts The writer has a career as a Supplier Development Engineer in the Automotive Industry. The products produced include interior and exterior door handles and exterior mirrors. Although there are other automotive supplier’s who produce the same products, generally there are only a handful of these suppliers. Therefore, understanding the market for the products produced affects production on a supply and demand level. Changes in the economy in 2009 affected the production levels of our products. Vehicles were not selling, especially the larger SUV’s and truck platforms. Due to the decrease in demand, it created a surplus in the quantity of product on-hand. What did not occur, however, is a change in the price of the products. The product prices remained constant. What did change was the number of employees, which was reduced by 25% as well as a reduction in salaries for all employees. These reductions compensated for the p ricing of the products not changing. Price Elasticity of Demand â€Å"Price elasticityShow MoreRelatedSupply and Demand Simulation Paper886 Words   |  4 PagesSupply and Demand Simulation Paper ECO/365 Week 2 Individual Assignment February 25, 2013 Supply and Demand The analysis will identify two microeconomics and two macroeconomics principles or concepts from the simulation, and explain why each principle or concept is in the category of macroeconomics or microeconomics. The analysis will identify at least one shift of the supply curve, and one shift of the demand curve from the simulation and what causes the shifts. The analysis will showRead MoreEco365 Supply and Demand Simulation Paper761 Words   |  4 PagesSupply and Demand Simulation ECO/365 Supply and Demand Simulation In the University of Phoenix simulation (2003), students are taken through the supply and demand of two-bedroom apartments in a city called Atlantis. The simulation itself is used as a tool to learn about the demand and supply curves as well as equilibrium. Other key learning points are the factors that affect supply and demand, the effect that a price ceiling has on the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied. ThroughoutRead MoreAnalyzing Supply of Demand Simulation1042 Words   |  5 PagesAnalyzing Supply of Demand Simulation ECO/365 January 31, 2010 Analyzing Supply of Demand Simulation Supply and demand is a significant element of business procedures thus this paper will evaluate how supply and demand affects a business via a simulation provided by the University of Phoenix. In this paper, I will talk about the reasons for changes that occur in supply and demand. I will talk about how shifts in supply and demand influence the organization’s decision making processRead MoreSupply and Demand Simulation983 Words   |  4 Pages   ECO365 Supply and Demand Simulation Student Name ECO/365 – Principles of Microeconomics Instructor Name Date Introduction Supply and Demand is a phrase that every one hears in one way or another, Supply and demand phrase according to Colander, (2010) is the most used phrase by economist and the reason is because the phrase provides a good â€Å"off-the-cuff† answer for many question that have to do with economy. Example why are interest rates to Low? Because supply and demand. Why is GasolineRead MoreEco 365 Supply and Demand Simulation Essay855 Words   |  4 PagesSupply and Demand Simulation ECO/365 November 26, 2012 The purpose of this paper is to discuss the Supply and Demand simulation from the student website. The idea is to identify two microeconomic and two macroeconomic principles present in the simulation and to explain why these principles are categorized as macro or microeconomic. The paper will also determine one shift of the supply curve and one shift of the demand curve from the simulation, as well as why theseRead MoreSupply and Demand Simulation819 Words   |  4 PagesSupply and Demand Simulation A simulation was conducted to understand supply and demand when renting out apartment homes. This paper will briefly explain two microeconomics and two macroeconomics principles, it will include one shift of the supply curve and demand curve in the simulation. For each of the shifts the affect of the equilibrium price, quantity, and decision making will be analyzed. A description of supply and demand from the simulation and how to apply it in the workplace is includedRead MoreBasic Concepts1315 Words   |  6 PagesBasic Concepts Paper Charles Lloyd Eco/415 October 19, 2012 George Flemming Basic Concepts Paper Circumstances, which are different, can have a major affect on supply and demand. The simulation in this week’s assignment deals with the curves of supply and demand and how they are affected by the changing of situations that happens in the city of Atlantis with the two-bedroom apartments. Changes were supposed to be made depending on the findings and results made within the Atlantis communityRead MoreApplying Supply and Demand Concepts1027 Words   |  5 PagesApplying Supply and Demand Concepts David Hodge ECO 365 April 29, 2013 Robert Watson Applying Supply and Demand Concepts The supply and demand simulation was a very helpful tool in understanding the effects of external factors on the supply and demand curves. Understanding this concept is fundamental in preparing for real life situations. I personally enjoyed the fact that the simulation was based on a real estate management company. I was able to understand and relate to the informationRead MoreSupply and Demand Simulation Essay694 Words   |  3 PagesSupply and Demand Simulation This weeks simulation is based on GoodLife Management. GoodLife Management is located in the fictitious town of Atlantis, and rents two-bedroom apartments on a month-to-month basis. The simulation provided working examples of several factors that effectively change the supply and demand of GoodLifes rentals over the course of several years. These factors include GoodLifes management direction, population changes within Atlantis and outlying areas, changes in consumersRead MoreAssignment : System Modeling And Simulation1082 Words   |  5 PagesMMATIVE ASSIGNMENT 1 (S1) System modelling Simulation Background information: To begin with, the simulation named as Beer Game was being founded by Jay Forrester at MIT which illustrates the supply chain run by group based coordination including retailer, wholesaler, distributor and factory (Forio 2001). Moreover, the role of a retailer has been given which means the gamer have to manage the overall inventory for the retail outlets of an American company Samuels Root beer, located in Pittsburgh

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The Key to Successful Ethic Essay Topics

The Key to Successful Ethic Essay Topics The Foolproof Ethic Essay Topics Strategy A good example essay will give answers to a lot of essential questions. It's possible to also mention what you would like to achieve by writing this specific essay. Writing a great persuasive essay is not a simple job, however, it's achievable. A properly descriptive essay with distinctive and unique content can be yours for an affordable price. This is a rather common essay topic chosen by thousands of students from all around the world. That is the reason most students must occasionally write ethics essays. When students write essays on a topic, they have to appraise various perspectives and provide proof to back up their own view. Oftentimes, they struggle when they have to conduct a research to write an ethics essay. People have the right to have a gun. Freedom makes man accountable for his acts to the extent they are voluntary. Criminals will break laws no matter the sequel of their crimes if they're caught. Attempting to rehabilitate criminals may not be that effective. But there are a number of other things that ought to be taken under consideration. As in the prior examples, it can be quite challenging to speak up, especially as soon as an incident involves popular kids. An individual, unlike quite a few other animals, is endowed with the capacity to acquire and use his knowledge to come up with and improv e himself. Regardless what choice he makes, it will be the right one for that person. Life doesn't have wrong choices. It consists of choices. Lives can be saved if more folks have the ability to get guns. The absolute most important part of a prosperous work is choosing a great topic to talk about and to defend by arguments. It normally indicates a type of confusion that must be related to a person's ethics. In the actual sense, there is not any definite term of describing what's ethical and what's not. A superb definition of ethics includes the idea of doing what's morally acceptable or what's nice and right instead of doing what's bad or wrong (Sims, 1992). In case the latter is true, the topic has to be chosen dependent on its depth and controversial nature. Your conclusion has to be persuasive, so that readers don't have any further questions on the problem. Well, it's very hard to answer this question. The question of diversity has ever been under intense discussion, and in the instance of business, it is still one of the main ethical problems. New Questions About Ethic Essay Topics In the industry world employers and company owners should be aware that there is not any room to be dishonest, or greedy dealing with a company. The bonuses were given by the government as an incentive to the executives to stay within the business during uncertainties which were brought on by the recession. Utilize LEGIT50 promo to receive 50% discount. Such society can't grow and progress. It appears perfectly reasonable that humans ought to be permitted to decide their own fate. Another complicated thing about ethics is the fact that it is cl osely related to each sphere of our life. This is most likely an assortment of rules and norm applicable in some specific spheres of our life. For the modern Earth, the ideal thing is money. Meanwhile, it has come to be an increasingly common phenomenon all around the world. See the way the media control problems and biased attitude influence society and the folks in it. Benefactors are people who give out money or some other kind of assistance to other persons referred to as the beneficiaries. Individuals ought to have the capacity of undertaking decisions by themselves. Okay, it's for you to choose! In fact, it's one reason why most students need a little extra tutoring help and solutions! New Questions About Ethic Essay Topics Ethics are values concerning human behavior. Ethics isn't an easy subject to research. Business ethics are extremely crucial in the daily running of the company. Ethics in business is another intriguing subject of study.

What Motivates Some to Volunteer or Perform free essay sample

What motivates some to volunteer or perform community service? Explain the reasons why some volunteer willingly use their spare time on projects that do not benefit them and even ones that may put them at risk. Write an essay of about 300 words. Remember that although the reasons for volunteering might be many and varied, you should choose those details that best support your overall thesis and use details that are easily understood by your audience. It is the fifth annual campus conference of Active Mind at Penn University. 100 backpacks lying down on the ground, representing each student who takes their own life every year. Alison Malmon founder and director of Active Mind, pledges to save our students from committing suicide. What motivates her and others to volunteer their time to save others? When Alison was freshman at Penn, her brother Brian was a senior at Columbia. Alison reported that Brian while in college was dealing with serious depression but didn’t feel comforta ble telling anyone. We will write a custom essay sample on What Motivates Some to Volunteer or Perform or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Therefore, help was too far too late when he kills himself in March of her freshman year. Concerned by that rising situation, Alison and some college students have taking the right decision. They have formed the Active Mind, a nonprofit organization with the goal to stop this problem. They dedicate themselves to raise mental health awareness on college campuses nationally and abroad. Understanding the need to help others cope with difficult situations is one factor out of many. These factors are the ones motivating us to volunteer and serve others. Alison Malmon is one of many who joined their voice together and call for help. Help when our brothers, sisters or our environment are under terrible threat of destructions. That makes us understand without people who care there will be no care for people. Whatever the reasons why we volunteer, we see something that may be an answer to our fight. The fight against real life problems, ideologies that will shape our present and future situations is our motivation. Like Alison and the members of Active Mind, some may willingly devote their time to serve others. But understand the value of life and the necessity to help preserve and improve it is our motivation.

World War I an Example by

World War I World War I an Example by World War I World War One was said to be a war that would end all future wars. However, with World War 2 following afterwards, obviously man was mistaken. In fact, many historians believe that the seeds for World War 3 have already been sown as well. With a spark anywhere in the Middle East, Chinese-Taiwan sea border or the Korean peninsula, World War 3 could be a very realistic possibility. World Wars are best defined as conflicts that span over 2 continents. Historians believe that a war can be classified as a World War if it meets the first requirement, and has the involvement of 20 or more countries. The use of alliances, conscription and massive resource allocation towards war are some of the other conditions needed. Need essay sample on "World War I" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed World War 1 was one such war. The war was fought mainly on the European, Asian, and African continents. The conflict that left 15 million people killed in the aftermath all began with a single spark; the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on 28th June, 1914. With the Austro-Hungarian Empire deeply aggrieved by the circumstance, their leaders put difficult treaty conditions on the Serbian state. Though the Serbian State accepted most, rejecting some minor clauses, the Austro-Hungarian Empire attacked (Gilbert, 2004). With the tangle of diplomatic treaties already in place across Europe, nations who were least involved in the initial start became leaders of war campaigns. Nations dragged into the war included; Great Britain, USA, Italy, Germany, Russia, France, Japan, Austro-Hungary and Serbia. Though there were many causes identified which resulted in the First World War, the main were as follows: The formations of alliances: The system of secret alliances had long been established since the end of the Franco-Prussian War. Sides had been chosen, alliances formed and stockpiling of weapons was already underway even before the assassination of the Prince of Austro-Hungarian Empire took place. These alliances were the entanglements that resulted in the involvement of so many countries into war. Because the continent had been split so vividly across two sides, each having their own agreements related to defense, aggression and mutual co-operation, it was inevitable all of Europe would be at war because of two countries (Gilbert, 2004). Many countries tried avoiding the war by keeping a neutral stance but could not in the long term due to their alliance obligations. Colonization: During that era in time, nations were busy acquiring colonies. European countries were massively competing against each other in trying to acquire the most resources possible. Areas such as Africa and China often became a source of discontent when territorial boundaries could not be sustained or controlled (Gilbert, 2004). This was also a reason for the present hostilities during that time. Militarism: with the pressure on national economies to support larger armies and new technology related to war equipment, the armies of various nations were given more and more power. Because of this, civilian administration began to decline and more authority rested with military officers. Already trigger happy, these nations had developed national plans relating to security and mobilization issues well before the war had started, as if anticipating it in advance. To ensure their countrys dominance, espionage was often used to unfold other nations plans. This created great animosity amongst major military players in the region which unfolded in the battlefield of world war one (Gilbert, 2004). Nationalism: Politicians, military leadership and people alike started enforcing upon the public a sense of nationalism. This strong feeling generated a patriotic tune amongst the masses for their country stirring hatred amongst ethnic groups, countries and often their own minorities. War speeches touched upon these aspects and further brain washed the innocent public. More and more recruits poured in to protect the mother land and in doing so automatic conscription took place. (Gilbert, 2004) The war claimed an end to four great empires of the European continent; German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Ottoman. The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires do not exist anymore and have been divided into several smaller states. The war created massive devastation across Europe and other continents. The war that lasted, from 1914-1918, realized a terrible end to many nations. Germany, Austria-Hungary, France lost 15.1%, 17.1% and 10.5% of their active male populations because of the war, respectively (Keegan, 2000). Germany was forced to claim responsibility for the war and made to sign the Treat of Versailles. At the same time, all her colonies were snatched and she was made to make enormous war reparations, along with territory, to the victors (Keegan, 2000). Russia lost many of its western territories while the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken along ethnic lines. The Ottoman Empires territories were seized and awarded amongst victor nations In the end, out of the 70 million recruited soldiers that were mobilized in Europe, 15 million died (Gilbert, 2004). Civilian causalities have yet to be assessed accurately but are sure to match the figures above. References: Gilbert, M. (2004). The First World War, Second Edition: A Complete History. : Holt. Keegan, J. (2000). The First World War. : Vintage.

The Impact of Audience Fragmentation on Public Service Broadcasting

The Impact of Audience Fragmentation on Public Service Broadcasting Introduction Over the past few decades, media audiences have experienced fragmentation in many countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia partly because of increase in media choices. Audience fragmentation and media polarization are common in today’s generation dominated by technology and the new media.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Audience Fragmentation on Public Service Broadcasting specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Audience fragmentation is caused by media proliferation, which makes the broadcast opportunities more diverse posing a challenge to media providers and advertisers. The media proliferation means that the media content, once a preserve of specific outlets such as public broadcasters, is now available in all platforms, which results to a more participatory and fragmented audience. While this may be good for democratic development, it presents major challe nges that affect mainstream media financially (Benkler 32). Society and audiences in many countries are changing in line with the developments in media technology, the new media, and the internet. In Australia, the audience is increasingly becoming fragmented particularly with regard to television viewing. In 2009, about 84% of all Australian households were audience of free-t-air TV, which, however, was shared with three other major stations (FreeTV 12). Audience fragmentation in Australia has arisen due to increase in the number of commercial channels. By the end of 2010, the number of free-to-air channels grew sharply with the licensing of six additional government-sponsored and commercial television channels further contributing to audience fragmentation (FreeTV 9). Public broadcasters have responded quite positively to the changing media environment. Radio stations, television networks and other content providers have rapidly shifted their services to involve the internet. At t he same time, public broadcasting has adopted more personalized services and products to meet the diverse needs of the consumer in a fragmented society (Murdock 54). Despite the stiff competition occasioned by media proliferation, public broadcasting is best suited in delivering and receiving content that informs, entertains, and educates a fragmented society through the new media and the internet in line with its original mission and therefore public broadcasting is still necessary even in the face of audience fragmentation and proliferation of media outlets.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Principles of Public Broadcasting The commercial broadcasters often offer programs that propagate their commercial interests. In contrast, public broadcasters’ mission is to offer a balanced programming that focuses on public and governance affairs while being politica lly neutral and non-commercial (Tomaselli 31). However, with the recent advancements in technology and the emergence of the new media, which has led to audience fragmentation, public broadcasters appear to compromise their initial mission. Among the principles of public broadcasting is its quest to be universally accessible and have a universal appeal (Tomaselli 34). By integrating technology like digital Audio broadcasting (DAB) into public broadcasting, public broadcasters have been able to increase their reach in most countries. In Australia, DAB digital radio is broadcasted in five major metropolitan areas with the community radio sector shifting to digital broadcasting to increase accessibility (Free TV 12). Public service broadcasting should be available to everyone regardless of his or her geographical location. In Australia, a digital community radio was launched on May 2011, to offer a broad range of digital content and increase accessibility of public broadcasting (CBAA). Unlike commercial broadcasting, which is governed by commercial and advertising interests, public service broadcasting plays a crucial role in dissemination of unbiased information to the public. It offers a forum for public debate on issues affecting the people, which enable people to make informed choices. In this way, public service broadcasting allows people to express their opinions on contentious issues and in the process fosters cohesion in the society. Public broadcasting also empowers citizens owing to its programs that cover governance and political issues (Tomaselli 39). This phenomenon enhances the quality of life of individuals and social groups can participate in issues affecting their economic and social lives. Public broadcasting, therefore, offers actual and unbiased information, which promotes free opinion formation as compared to other commercial broadcasters and this trend makes public broadcasting necessary in the society even in the wake of audience fragmentati on and media proliferation. Public service broadcasting also takes into account the interests of the minority within the society with an intention of promoting social cohesion. The central issue, however, is whether public broadcasting can be detached from government interests given its source of funding.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Audience Fragmentation on Public Service Broadcasting specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Public broadcasters are expected to exercise independence from political interference or commercial interests. However, absolute independence is often difficult in practice. In addition, the public broadcasters need to emphasize on quality programming instead of multi-channeling, which is common in commercial broadcasting to support the programs. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) increased the number of channels, which has affected the quality of its programming and stretc hed its resources (Frangopoulos Para. 2). Public Broadcasting and the New Digital technologies The technological developments have made it easier for both the media providers and the users to move across the media platforms. Digital technologies have led to the new media commonly referred to as â€Å"social media†, which also has contributed to audience fragmentation. These include social networks like Face book, video sharing media such as You Tube and search engines such as Google and iTunes (Webster 371). The social media, unlike the traditional media, aim at increasing their popularity and in the process attract more audience. To achieve popularity, many of the social media compete for audience by offering attractive user-friendly options to attract the attention of the users. Unfortunately, the attention of the public is limited and scarce. The focus of the new media is to catch the attention of the audience as the prerequisite for attaining their social and economic obj ectives (Davenport and Beck 65) and this has led to the proliferation of the social media further contributing to audience fragmentation. However, integration of public broadcasting and social media allows the public to debate on national issues more effectively. The media users also contribute to audience fragmentation as they usually choose the media products they prefer. The user preferences are reflective of their attitudes, their needs, or tastes. The audience can opt to remain loyal to a particular genre provided by a given media or sample a diverse range of media genres. Users preferring a particular genre especially with regard to news lead to a highly focused audience known as â€Å"gated communities† or â€Å"enclaves†, which lead to audience fragmentation (Iyengar and Hahn 112). The users are expected to understand the media environment in which they operate.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, the proliferation of the media outlets especially the digital media makes perfect understanding of the digital marketplace almost impossible. In addition, the diversity of the media products makes informed user choice difficult. Users cannot even be sure of which brand would provide the desired gratification and therefore have to sample different media outlets. Public broadcasting offers better means through which the public perceives and addresses public affairs through digital technology and the new media forms, partly because public broadcasting, owing to its focus on public affairs, enjoys a higher level of public trust than the commercial broadcasting. In addition, public broadcasting focuses on universal accessibility and therefore, the new technologies offer a platform to increase its reach in line with its mission. Forms of Media Fragmentation The proliferation of media outlets like channels and websites or media products as music or movies play a significant role i n audience fragmentation termed media-centric fragmentation. Under media-centric fragmentation, the media providers are arranged from the most popular to the least popular using data derived from monthly visitors or total sales reached in a month conducted by independent providers (Anderson 54). In media-centric fragmentation, the audiences are spread across many media outlets. In Australia, rationalization of the audience is high and continues to increase because of restrictions that prevent multi-channeling. By 2009, free-to-air TV (FTA) had an estimated audience of 84%, which it shared with three other commercial TV stations (FreeTV 16). In 2011, three national TV channels, three more channels that are commercial and Pay TV have entered the market. However, government restrictions prevent multi-channeling involving FTA broadcasting (FreeTV 13). This has contributed to audience fragmentation as users and advertisers migrate to other media including the new media. Despite the conti nued fragmentation of the audience, public broadcasting remains a reliable means of promoting social cohesion while promoting diversity of culture. The public broadcasting works is even more useful in a fragmented society as the individual needs of social groups and community public service broadcasters address minorities more effectively. Fragmentation at micro-level involves the distribution of each individual’s use of media across many providers. People become specialized in their patterns of media use by becoming concentrating on a certain class of media products or media outlets that deliver the desired services. In addition, under the micro-level fragmentation, the characteristics of the audience e.g. age or gender is common. The audience relies on subsets of the available media, at a micro-level, on a daily basis to obtain relevant information in the complex media environment. The public broadcasters through its range of educative and informative programs can attract a ll different segments of audience as they discuss political, economic, and social issues affecting their lives. Another form of audience fragmentation relies on a macro-level way of perceiving audiences based on the media they use. This approach can identify the audience for a particular media outlet and by doing so; it is easier to determine how the public attention is spread across the media environment. The macro-level fragmentation can evaluate channel loyalty and audience flows within the media environment (Napoli 67). According to Webster, analysis of the media environment which indicates that users do not spend a lot of time in gated communities but rather sample a variety of media products to satisfy their needs (378). The Future of Audience Fragmentation In spite of audience fragmentation caused by interactions between media providers and users, public broadcasting remains an important source of media products. According to Webster, most media users do not spend much time i n niches or gated communities nor does typical users consume particular media products only, rather most of them range widely across the media outlets as they search desired media products (381). The audiences may appear highly fragmented but they do not stay long within the niches or gated communities. Majority of the users have rather varied media repertoires, which are specialized subsets of media that provide desired media products at particular times. This implies that the micro-level and macro-level fragmentation have no much impact on the consumption patterns of the audience. In fact, the public prefers to associate and debate public affairs. The public broadcasting offers an ideal platform for citizens to be informed on national issues and contributes to national development. Moreover, despite relying on different media repertoires, users can still get the same products and the traditional media remains a preferred source of quality media content. The popularity of the media providers is fundamental to the future distribution of audiences across the media environment. Anderson beliefs that the many media offerings or choices offered would contribute to audience fragmentation in the future (181). Frank and Cook, on the other hand expect that high concentration of the audiences will continue to be experienced in the digital media as compared to other forms of media (56). Moreover, in the digital media, because of differential quality of the digital media products, there will be less audience fragmentation. Due to the diversity of the digital media products and the social nature of the digital media, it is likely that the digital media will become more popular than the traditional media. Audience fragmentation is not likely to be high in digital media as the quality of media products is not normally uniform. Assuming the prices are fairly the same, the audience choices would gravitate towards the digital media that offers high quality choices. As Caves no tes, most content providers and the users alike tend to prefer high quality media products if they can afford them (33). Digital media provides a platform for providers and the users to access high quality services on demand, which effectively reduces the available choices and concentrates the audiences around the best media options thus reducing audience fragmentation. The social nature of the digital media consumption makes digital media more desirable. Through social media networks like Facebook, You Tube, and Twitter among others, few programs, or sports events contribute to live audience debates on various topics, which the public broadcasting service can use to propagate its mission. The social networks also allow simultaneous media use especially alongside television viewing. Twitter and Facebook allow conversations on a virtual space, which concentrates the audience on these networks as they discuss topics they find noteworthy. Since the digital media products are more diver se, the users rely on recommendation systems that guide their consumption. While the media recommendation systems may vary across the media environment, they are mostly directed at promoting the popular media products or media outlets relying on the information on what other have chosen (Webster 389). Nevertheless, the digital products, the media outlets, or their content only varies slightly. The major concern about audience fragmentation is its economic impact on advertising as companies find it difficult to reach the intended market due to audience fragmentation. Contrary to these concerns, fragmentation, and the large number of media channels actually allows practitioners to reach a large number of audiences and can even provide access to additional audience. In order to maximize reach, advertising should be carried out across multiple media channels (Ephron 19). A study conducted by Newstead to establish the strategies of maximizing reach to the Australian market, found out tha t, extending the media coverage coupled by distribution over a wide range of media during advertising increases reach efficiency of between 2-46% (Newstead 76). Despite the proliferation of media outlets, the media outlets offer more or less similar content, which makes public broadcasting even more reliable as a source of information. Conclusion It is evident that the proliferation of commercial media outlets has influenced public broadcasting in many ways. However, public broadcasting in many countries remains the appropriate means of promoting public interaction. Due to competition from commercial broadcasters, public broadcasting has adopted different broadcasting methods involving introduction of diverse programs tailored for specific social groups, more interactive programs that make use of the new media, and introduction of appealing media content. In addition, public broadcasting has made use of digital technologies to promote accessibility in line with its mandate. All this has translated to public broadcasting playing an important role particularly with regard to promoting social cohesion. In conclusion, public broadcasting is still necessary even in the wake of recent proliferation of media outlets and audience fragmentation. Anderson, Craig. Free: The future of a radical price. New York: Hyperion, 2009. Benkler, Yunus. The wealth of networks: How social production transforms  Markets and Freedom. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 2006. Caves, Richard. Switching channels: Organization and change in TV broadcasting.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005. Community Broadcasting of Australia (CBAA). â€Å"Sidney Community Radio Digital Launch†. 2011. 3/6/2011. Web. Davenport, Tim, and Beck, Julie. The attention economy: Understanding the new  Currency of business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2001. Ephron, Eric. â€Å"More Weeks, Less Weight: The Shelf-Space Model of Advertising.†Ã‚  Journal of Advertisin g Research 23.1 (1995): 18-23. Frangopoulos, Angie. ABCs purpose lost in 24-hr transmission, 2010. Web. Frank, Rodger, and Cook, Peter. The winner-take-all society: Why the few at the  Top get so much more than the rest of us. New York: Penguin, 1995. FreeTV. Industry Report: 2009 Year in Review. FreeTV Australia. 2010:9-16. Iyengar, Steve, and Hahn, Kim. â€Å"Red media, blue media: Evidence of ideological Selectivity in media use.† Journal of Communication 59.1 (2009):110-115. Murdock, Grace. Citizens, consumers, and public culture. London: Routledge, 1992: Napoli, Peter. Audience evolution: New technologies and the transformation of media  Audiences. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011. Newstead, Kim. Best-practice media scheduling a practical application. Adelaide: University of South Australia. 2010. Tomaselli, Robin. â€Å"Public Service Broadcasting in the Age of Information Capitalism.†Ã‚  Communicare 8.2 (1989): 27-41. Webster, Gordon. â€Å"Beneath the veneer of fragmentation: Television audience Polarization in a multichannel world.† Journal of Communication 55.2 (2005): 366-389.

Memo Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Memo - Case Study Example The first thing the organization needs to establish is the goals. These will lean towards what the organization is aiming to achieve and what they want to attain within the short term that is less than a year and in a few years’ time. In order to attain the goals, it is necessary to have desired outcomes such as having financial security and a larger clientele base for sustainability of the organization. The desired outcomes will be accompanied by a timeline with set time limit to attain the outcomes. This will pressure the employees and board members into working harder and smarter. Strategies to attain the desired outcomes need to be put in place. These may include letting go of the unproductive board members, employees and trustees as they add no value to the organization’s success. New board members can be brought in who have knowledge in business and economics. The new members will work with the earlier proposals and plans of the development committee and the new goals in mind. Measure of the target and strategies should be put in place to be carried out after every two months and the final results to be released on or before the set timeline. Strong leadership provides direction and guidance for the rest of the people in the organization without which there will be disorganization and chaos as is currently the case in ECO. The board and trustees should come together with assistance from neutral party seek a new leader from outside the current individuals who has business experience. Evaluation of progress made will be carried out after every two months and will focus on the challenges and strengths made by the leader. The board is in charge of seeking funds to run the organization which is carried out through fundraising. Without the funds to run the organization, it will have to be closed and the employees lose their source of livelihood. The older more

Country Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Country Report - Essay Example After Japan suffered defeat in World War II, Korea was liberated and Soviet-American agreements exploited the divisions that had sprung up during the previous decades. Aggravated by old resentments, nationalistic attitudes, and the politics of the new Cold War, the Soviet-American actions further divided North and South Korea, precipitated the Korean War, and erected a lasting wall dividing a country that 50 years earlier had been united. The story of Korea is the story of a once deeply unified people that have been profoundly distanced in a world apart. The divisions that existed in Korea after Japan's defeat in World War II were the result of Japan's occupational tyranny. Divisions between the left and the political right, between capitalism and Chinese communism, the nationalists and the Japanese sympathizers, only further disappointed those that expected immediate independence after Japan's defeat. Even with these disagreements across the country, Korea may have been able to heal its wounds, find some common ground and engage in a program of unification and independence. However, the Soviets and the Americans had already dashed any hope that the Korean's may have had for unification and they were unwittingly being setup for even greater division (Gourevitch). The initial plans to turn Korea into an American-Soviet trusteeship had fallen through. In the days after the atomic bombs had been dropped, but before Japan surrendered, America already was planning out the future for Korea. While the Russians occupied the Northern Provinces and the US forces occupied the South, they were forming coalitions and governments that would be sympathetic to their respective ideologies. The Northern Provinces were primarily revolutionaries and communists led by Kim Il Sung, an anti-Japanese revolutionary (Gourevitch). By 1946, the communists were able to form a cohesive political party in the North and were able to man a small army. The South, with Seoul, had the ruling seat of government but was staffed by bureaucratic positions that were more often perceived as Japanese collaborators left behind after the occupation. Late in 1945, Dr. Syngman Rhee returned to Korea after residing outside the country during the period of Japanese imperialism. Many U.S. officials favored Rhee, a staunch anti-Communist, to form the new government. Rhee and US Occupation forces made plans to establish a separate government administration in South Korea by organizing the bureaucracy left behind by the Japanese. Rhee's newly established government set out to cripple his political opponents and destroy any possibility of a leftist uprising in anticipation of overpowering the North and gaining complete control of the unified Korea. By 1949, Rhee had imprisoned 30,000 of his political enemies, had another 70,000 imprisoned in "Guidance Camps", and by December 1949 he was arresting as many as 1,000 suspected communists per day (Cumings, 223). These dictatorial tactics were designed to maintain his power while he eliminated any remaining resistance in the South for a planned invasion of the Northern Provinces. Who started the war, and who took the first offensive action

Importance of Meeting Child Individual Needs

Importance of Meeting Child Individual Needs UNIT 1: A UNIQUE CHILD EXPLAIN THE BENEFITS FOR CHILDREN WHEN THIER INDIVIDUAL NEEDS ARE MET CHILD DEVELOPMENT Every child is a unique individual with their own characteristics and temperament. Development is a continuous complex interaction of environmental and genetic factors in which the body, brain and behavior become more complex Babies and children mature at different rates and at different times in their lives Babies and children are vulnerable and become resilient and confident if they have support from others early relationships strongly influence how children develop and having close relationships with carers is very important A SKILFUL COMMUNICATOR Babies are especially interested in other people and in communicating with them using eye contact, crying, cooing and gurgling to have ‘conversations’ Babies and children are sociable and curious, and they explore the world through all their senses. Babies and children develop their competence in communicating through having frequent, enjoyable interactions with the people, in contexts that they understand. Children learn to communicate in many ways, not just by talking, but also in a non-verbal ways such as gestures, facial expressions and gaze direction, in drawing, writing and singing, and through dance, music and drama. A COMPETENT LEARNER Babies come into the world ready to learn and are especially tuned to learn from other people and the cultural and material environment. Play and other imaginative and creative activities help children to make sense of their experience and ‘transform’ their knowledge, fostering cognitive development. Language, thinking and learning are interlinked, they depend on and promote each others development. What children can do is the starting point for learning. Children learn better by doing, and by doing things with other people who are more competent, rather than just being told. EFFECTIVE PRACTICE Understand the process involved in babies’ and children growth, development and learning. Support babies and children to develop a positive sense of their own identity and culture, this helps them to develop a positive self-image. Encourage, listen and respond to babies and children’s communications, both non-verbal and verbal. Acknowledge the different ways in which babies and children learn, and be aware that learning is a process that cannot be rushed. Recognise that babies and children attitudes and dispositions to learning are influenced by the feedback of others. DESCRIBE HOW THE PRINCIPLES OF ANTI DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICE CAN BE APPLIED TO PRACTICE CHILDRENS ENTITLEMENTS All children are citizens and have rights and entitlements. Children should be treated fairly regardless of race, religion or abilities. This applies no matter. What they think or say; What type of family they come from; What language (s) they speak; What their parents do; Whether they are girls or boys; Whether they have a disability or whether they are rich or poor. All children have a equal right to be listened to and valued in the setting EQUALITY AND DIVERSITY All children have a need to develop, which is helped by exploring and discovering the people and things around them. Some children’s development may be at risk, for example Children who are disabled and those with special educational needs; Those from socially excluded families, such as the homeless or those who live with a parent who is disabled or has a mental illness; Children from traveller communities, refugees or asylum seekers and those live diverse linguistic backgrounds. All children are entitled to enjoy a full life in conditions which will help them take part in society and develop as an individual, with their own cultural and spiritual beliefs. Practitioners ensure that their own knowledge about different cultural groups is up to-date and consider their own attitudes to people who are different from themselves. Attached: Playroom Day Nursery’s Inclusion and Equal Opportunities policy PROMOTING ANTI DISCRIMINATION PRACTICE LEGISLATION There are various pieces of legislation in place to promote equality and reduce discrimination. These include the Disability Discrimination Act 2005. The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001, the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000, Convention on the rights of the child (UN, 1989), The Human Rights Act 1998, The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (as amended), Employment Equality ( Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003, the Equality Act 2010. The aim of this legislation is to promote equality of opportunity for all, regardless of age, sex, sexuality, disability, race, religion or any other difference. However, whilst legislation is important because it protects people, the one thing it cannot do is change people’s attitudes Everyone has internalised layers of expectation based on personal upbringing and experiences that operate on a conscious and subconscious level. A key worker acknowledging the extent of the baggage that they may bring to an environment is a vital first step along the road to anti discriminatory practice. PUTTING INTO PRACTICE Anti discriminatory practice can be defined as an approach to working with young children that promotes Diversity and the valuing of all differenced A setting whose practice is anti discriminatory will celebrate and value differences in identities, cultures, religions, abilities and social practices. Self esteem and positive group identity A setting will recognise the impact of discrimination, the social inequalities and their effect on young children and their families. Such a setting will identify and remove practices and procedures that discriminate. Fulfilment of individual potential A setting will value children and adults for their individuality and ensure a sense of belonging that promotes self esteem. It will respect where children come from, what they achieve and what they bring to the learning situation. The full participation of all groups in society A setting will appreciate the importance of what is learned and what can be unlearned in the early years and recognise the wider aim of early education to lay the foundations of a more just and equitable society. Early years practitioners also need to assess the discrimination that occurs in society and their own setting (consciously or subconsciously) and the effect it has on the children. In Practice Moving towards successful anti discriminatory practice involves Understanding that diversity is inclusive and that we all have cultural backgrounds and multiple indignities that are derived from various sources, including our families, our peer groups and out own unique set of individual experiences Examining our personal prejudices and how they operate, and committing ourselves to ‘unlearning’ our prejudices Promoting positive values for families, communities and staff Gathering a repertoire of strategies to ensure settings are welcoming, non threatening and stimulating places be, where children and families are valued because of their differences and not in spite of them Developing the awareness, confidence, skill and knowledge to challenge and educate effectively, for example, the child who thinks black skin is dirty or the staff member who makes assumptions about a disabled child’s inability to join in and activity Involving everyone in dynamic and constructive dialogue and process Constantly monitoring, evaluating and adjusting practice and procedures Flexible thinking Among the attributes that we especially need to develop and strengthen are assertiveness, the ability to communicate effectively and the ability to empathise with others, The aim of anti discriminatory practice is not to generate discomfort, conflict or negativity, although we may well encounter these feelings along the way. Treating children the same isnt the same things as treating them equally. To treat children equally we have to recognise that society does not provide a level playing field and we may have to take a variety of unequal factors into account to meet their universal entitlement as future citizens. All children stand to benefit from enabling, ensuring environment where achievements are valued in the broadest possible terms and individual potential is respected Anti discriminatory practice strives towards all the children and the adults in a setting developing and maintaining high self esteem and being proud of where they come from One important rule is not to expect to find easy or right answers to everything. This is an area where a little knowledge, if generally applied, can be as dangerous as none at all. While some knowledge can be desirable and useful, it is counter productive if it leads us to assume, fro example, that families from a particular culture or religion will have identical interpretation or application of this ideas, or that one child with Downs syndrome or cerebral palsy will have much the same needs or (dis)abilities as another. This process which involves getting to know people and children on a personal and professional basis and avoiding pre judgement and fixed expectations. This approach will often demand creative and individual solutions. DESCRIBE WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO PLAN ACTIVITIES THAT MEET THE INDIVIDUAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN As every child is different, it is important to think about, plan for, and interact with the individual, as well as the group as whole. Considering the range of children’s styles, social interactions an personalities. Some are quiet; others are noisy Some like to spend time by themselves; others are the life of the party Some are shy; others are outgoing Some are active; others are quiet Some enter into new situations easily; others like to stand back and watch You need to ensure children are confident, happy and engaged in learning, their individual needs must be met. You have to be constantly alert and responsive. The importance of meeting individual needs is well established in recent guidelines for early childhood practitioners. The English curriculum Guidance For The foundation Stage (GGFS) states that we should ‘ensure that all children feel included, secure and valued’ and ‘treat children as individuals’ Practitioners tune into children through observing them, interacting with them and listening to what their parents/carers have to say about them. EXPLAIN HOW THE PRACTITIONER CAN PROMOTE CHILDREN’S PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING WITHIN AN EARLY YEARS SETTING Personal, Social and Emotional development are three building blocks of future success in life. They are close linked to each other and often bracketed together as one area of learning and development. Personal development- how we come to understand who we are and what we can do, how we look after ourselves. Social development- how we come to understand ourselves in relation to others, how we make friends, understand the rules of society and behave towards others. Emotional development- how we come to understand our own and other’s feelings and develop our ability to ‘stand in someone elses shoes and see things from their point of view Practitioners work hard to ensure that children are happy in their learning and development and it helps children if parents are genuine partners with practitioners. All Saints primary school and Playrooms Nursery use (SEAL) Social and Emotional Aspects of learning. WHAT IS SEAL Seal is a school programme that support schools and plans to help children and young people to develop social and emotional skills. They are also essential for all adults and are important for early-years practitioners and staff in schools. HOW DOES IT WORK When a school/Nursery implements SEAL it will consider all aspects of school life and consider how social and emotional skills can be promoted. This might involve reviewing several school policies developing learning opportunities that ‘explicitly help children to learn the skills and to apply them. (www.bandapilot.org.uk) website with ideas for assemblies, staff development activities, learning opportunities a guidance booklet and resources to use across the school day Children must be provided with experiences and support which help them to develop a positive sense of themselves and of others, respect for others; Social skills, and a positive disposition to learn. EARLY SUPPORT It is important to identify the need for additional support as early as possible. Without it children will not get the help they need at the right time, in the way that is right for them. Early support for children includes listening to families and taking part in a sensitive two-way exchange of information. For children with the most severe and complex additional support needs you need to plan jointly with everyone who is in contact with the child. This will coordinate support and promote learning as effectively as possible. Knowing when and how to call in specialist help is one important element of inclusive practice. EFFECTIVE PRACTICE Encourage children to recognise their own unique qualities and the characteristics they share with other children. Make sure that you actively promote equal opportunities and anti-discriminatory practice, ensuring that all children and families feel included, safe and valued. Ask parents whether there is need for and special services and equipment for children who ma require additional support. Support children to make friends and help them to think about what makes a good friend. Ensuring the needs of every child are fully met, even when temporarily you need to spend more time with a child who is new to the setting or whose behaviour is giving rise to concern. Keeping a focus on the child’s needs when a parent also has significant needs. Maintaining records suitable for sharing with colleagues in an inter-agency team while acting as a point of contact for a child and their family.

The Idea of the Hypersexual Black Male in the Invisible Man Essay

In the Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison, the narrator’s view of women is generally pessimistic. His negative view of women is also reflected by women, specifically of Caucasian ethnicity. Their societal depiction of black men considers them to be hypersexual objects and incapable of anything else. Emma, Brother Hubert’s wife, and Sybil, are three women in particular who possess negative character flaws that allow the narrator to deem them unworthy. Emma’s tremendous dominance give the impression of being unapproachable while Brother Hubert’s wife’s infidelity and ability to control confuses him and finally, Sybil’s decadence makes her appear sloppy. All of these flaws are used to reduce the narrator to a sexual tool at the expense of his intellect. The first woman seen is Emma, a Brotherhood employee, who is perceived to be very powerful and demeaning toward the narrator although physically attracted to him. She engages in limited dialog which, I believe is intended to paint her as diminutive; however she is described as â€Å"smartly dressed† with a â€Å"hard, handsome face† (300). Her...

Why Have Nuclear Weapons Not Been Used in Conflict Since 1945?

Why have nuclear weapons not been used in conflict since 1945? Nuclear weapons have only ever been used once in human history, and that was during World War II when The United States deployed missiles on Japanese territory, in Nagasaki and Hiroshima. At the time of bombing in 1945 only the USA had developed nuclear weapons, whilst today the pool of states consisting of nuclear weapons is still extremely small, with only nine states laying claim to nuclear technology and weaponry. This nuclear proliferation is explained by Darryl Howlett who explains this as the worldwide spread of nuclear weapons.For Howlett states are nuclear driven because of the ‘strategic, political and prestige benefits’ attached to nuclear weapons[1]. In the modern world the mass media are often critical about nuclear weapons and the threats they pose for society, but this begs the question; why have nuclear weapons not been used in conflict since 1945? To answer this question the issues of taboo a nd deterrence and the arrival of virtual nuclear arsenals must be called into question, as well as theoretical ideas such as rationality from proliferation optimists and proliferation pessimists.I will also look at whether we currently live in a non-proliferation regime, and look at the alternatives for peace and nuclear non-usage. The first area of nuclear non-usage I will look at will be the arguments brought forward by proliferation pessimists and optimists. Kennitz Waltz, a proliferation optimist argues on one hand we cannot stop the spread of nuclear weapons. It’s inevitable because states seek power through nuclear weapons; even smaller, less powerful states align themselves with nuclear wielding states for protection and security.But on the other hand, Waltz argues states are rational actors, and believes nuclear weapons will be used responsibly, which is why nuclear weapons have not been used. For Waltz, more states who have nuclear weapons, the better. Waltz writes, â€Å"A blatant offensive is madness. Nuclear weapons and states that acquire them will reduce the chances of war and lower the intensity of war. †[2] For Waltz this provides deterrence from the threat of nuclear weapons. If this is the case, it would explain why nuclear weapons were used in the first place; there simply was no deterrence against the United States in Japan.Arguing against the optimists, Proliferation pessimists have another answer for the non-usage of nuclear weapons. Scott D. Sagen, proliferation pessimist has contradictory views of the state, believing states could be irrational, especially when militaristic figures take over decision making. Sagen argues all military have â€Å"organisational behaviour†[3] where by military figures are more likely to resort to nuclear warfare, and for a few who dare to venture, there is always an issue with miscalculation.Sagen argues the only reason nuclear weapons haven’t been used is because there hasnâ₠¬â„¢t been a war worth using them in. For Sagen disarmament is a means of ending the possibility of a nuclear threat. Furthermore, my next point explores the idea and theory surrounding the concept of taboo as a reason why nuclear weapons haven’t been used since 1945. Taboo is a concept coined by Nina Tanenwald, and it means the ‘tradition of non-use’, in this case nuclear weapons have become stigmatised[4].For Tanenwald deterrence alone doesn’t explain why nuclear weapons haven’t been used; Deterrence works though in Tanenwald’s view, but only when working side by side with taboo. With nuclear weapons there are moral, ethical and political costs attached, with Tanenwald stating that a â€Å"â€Å"moral norm† proscribing the use of nuclear weapons developed during the decades after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki attacks†[5] when talking about the moral issues of nuclear weapons. World opinion is also the biggest political constraint , with many people feeling politically and ethically united against the usage of nuclear attacks.In addition the norms and values of a society wielding nuclear weapons also matters, with South Africa an example of nuclear disarmament because of social and ethical efforts made by their people. Possibly the biggest example of taboo was during the nineteen year Vietnam War. Nina Tanenwald argues that nuclear were not used, which is obviously true, but using nuclear artillery was heavily discussed by United States forces. Three American presidents, Lyndon B. Johnson, John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, all in power during the Vietnam War chose not to use nuclear force.Tanenwald believes it is the moral, ethical and political factors, the taboo effect which proves non-use of nuclear weapons. Furthermore the concept of taboo and deterrence working together comes from theorist Henry Kissinger who was the Secretary of State under the Richard Nixon administration during the Vietnam War and pl ayed a huge roll in United States foreign policy. In his book ‘Diplomacy’, Kissinger writes, â€Å"Never have the military gap between the superpower and non-nuclear state been greater. Never was it best likely to be invoked. [6] Tanenwald would suggest Taboo was working in the concept of Deterrence with Kissinger’s words, possibly signalling the importance of taboo as a reason for nuclear non-use since 1945. The third argument for the absence of nuclear weapons since 1945 is through the concept of deterrence. Deterrence is the measures taken by a state or an alliance of multiple states to prevent hostile action by another, in this case through nuclear weapons. Colin Gray is one theorist who believes because of deterrence nuclear weapons are not used because they are not rational.According to Gray, taboo holds no truth, so argues against the ideas of Nina Tanenwald fiercely, with Gray going on to say that â€Å"it’s too clever†[7] to retaliate from a nuclear missile, so states are deterred from doing so in the first place. Gray and deterrence supporters are worried that if people begin believing in the truth of taboo, states might feel obliged to disarm nuclear artillery, which could prove even more fatal as it will disrupt the balance of power, especially between larger nations.With less nuclear capable states, there is a fear amongst deterrence supporters one state could use nuclear weapons to enhance their position as an international actor, and cause more war in doing so[8]. In this case, weapons are used as the ultimate form of deterrence, one which maintains the balance of power and eliminates the threat of nuclear strikes. The next area of discussion is the arrival of virtual nuclear arsenals (VNA’s). According to Michael Mazaar virtual nuclear arsenals are where you store and reconstruct nuclear weapons[9].When looking at why these have helped prolong the nuclear non-use, virtual nuclear arsenals are important because they eliminate the threat of miscalculation or an accidental bombing. Secondly by having deconstructed weapons, you can store each individual part separately, which means your weapons are harder to steal as they are stored in unknown locations. Mazaar argues that nuclear weapons haven’t been used because VNA’s act as a deterrent from attack. No one will strike your territory with a nuclear missile it they know at some point down the line there will be a retaliation from a VNA[10].This means the advantages of having nuclear missiles is weakened because state and military actors are deterred from using nuclear weapons. Ashley J. Tellis backs up this argument brought forward by Mazaar, stating that because of VNA’s, India and Pakistan, two countries with a war-torn history have been deterred from ‘employing nuclear destruction upon one another and mankind’[11], because each state uses VNA’s, showing that virtual nuclear arsenals have suc cessfully helped stop the use of nuclear weapons since 1945.The debate of virtual nuclear arsenals is continued and furthered by theorist John Schell, who looks at how weaponless deterrence limits nuclear action. For Schell no nuclear strikes have occurred because by constructing a nuclear weapon deterrence would persist, and VNA’s could be built to counter nuclear missiles. Schell famously quotes â€Å"Missile deters missile, bomber deters bomber, submarine deters submarine†¦ Factory deters factory, blueprint deters blueprint, equation deters equation. [12] In this sense, weaponless deterrence acts as a good strategic form of defence from nuclear attacks, and further explains why nuclear weapons haven’t been used in conflict since Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many would now argue that we live in times of a nuclear non-proliferation regime, which is the limitation of nuclear activity, brought forward by the ‘Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty’ (NPT). As man y states oppose nuclear weapons, even states with these weapons are often opposed, the NPT, a treaty with 189 state members acts as a treaty to stop the spread and possible use of nuclear weapons.The treaty was adopted in 1970 and is considered a three pillar system, focusing on non-proliferation, disarmament and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology, and every five years the treaty is reviewed. It’s worth noting that five nuclear states (The USA, Russia, France, The United Kingdom and China), who collectively make up the permanent members UN security council are all signed up to this treaty. The argument could be made that because of the current NPT regime nuclear eapons pose little and limited threat, and instead of owning nuclear technology for possible war and destruction, rather the emphasis of war has been slowed down to focus on technological improvements with nuclear technology, which could explain why nuclear weapons have not been used since 1945. In conclus ion nuclear weapons do pose a serious threat to humanity, but as I’ve outlined because of taboo, and deterrence there are too much political and ethical issues attached. Virtual nuclear arsenals now mean nuclear weapons have a secure hiding place, and the possibility of an unexpected VNA strike is deterring people from using weapons.Others such as Waltz argue that humans and states as are rational and nuclear weapons will be used responsibly, which is the case with the nuclear non-proliferation treaty, but others such as Sagen argue that we can’t trust states with nuclear decision making and our future is going to be compromised by the elite few who will one day exterminate the human race. But with each day that passes, do nuclear weapons still scare people? Maybe the only war nuclear weapons will become prominent once more and the real issue and effects of nuclear weapons will only become important if one is used.The alternatives for peace are already here. No, we can not eliminate nuclear weapons, but with VNA’s the concept of deterrence and taboo, as well as people becoming more rational and aware of the disaster nuclear weapons potentially bring, the safest option, is to hold on to what we have, which is the reminder in Nagasaki and Hiroshima of the damage and destruction that is caused and keep these weapons as a learning tool for the future. Word count: 2079 BIBLIOGRAPHY Gray, C. S. , (2005) ‘Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare’ (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson)Howlett, Darryl ‘Nuclear Proliferation’ in John Baylis and Steve Smith, The Globalisation of World Politics (Oxford: OUP, 2001, second edition) Kissinger, H. (1994) â€Å"Diplomacy† (New York: Simon & Schuster) Mazarr, Michael J. , (1995) ‘Virtual nuclear arsenals’, Survival 37:3, pp. 7-26 Sagan, S. D. , (1994) ‘The perils of proliferation: organisation, theory, deterrence theory and the spread of nuclear weapons’, Int ernational Security 18(4): 66-107 (E-Journal). Schell, J. , (1984) The Abolition (London: Pan Books) Tannenwald, N. (1999) ‘The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-use’ International Organization 53(3): 433-48 Tellis, A. J (2001) India's Emerging Nuclear Posture (Santa Monica: RAND) Waltz, K. N. (1981) ‘The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better’ Adelphi Papers, 171. Available at: http://www. mtholyoke. edu/acad/intrel/waltz1. htm ———————– [1] Howlett, Darryl ‘Nuclear Proliferation’ in John Baylis and Steve Smith, The Globalisation of World Politics (Oxford: OUP, 2001, second edition) [2] Waltz, K. N. (1981) ‘The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better’ Adelphi Papers, 171.Available at: http://www. mtholyoke. edu/acad/intrel/waltz1. htm [3] Sagan, S. D. , (1994) ‘The perils of proliferation: organisation, theory, deterrence theo ry and the spread of nuclear weapons’, International Security 18(4): 66-107 (E-Journal). [4] Tannenwald, N. , (1999) ‘The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-use’ International Organization 53(3): 433-48 [5] Tannenwald, N. , (1999) ‘The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-use’ International Organization [6] Kissinger, H. 1994) â€Å"Diplomacy† (New York: Simon & Schuster) [7] Gray, C. S. , (2005) ‘Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare’ (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson) [8] Gray, C. S. , (2005) ‘Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare’ (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson) [9] Mazarr, Michael J. , (1995) ‘Virtual nuclear arsenals’, Survival 37:3, pp. 7-26 [10] Mazarr, Michael J. , (1995) ‘Virtual nuclear arsenals’, Survival 37:3, pp. 29-92 [11] Tellis, A. J (2001) India's Emerging Nuclear Posture (Santa Monica: RAND) [12] Schell, J. , (1984) The Abolition (London: Pan Books)

Culture Is A Way Of Learning Things - 1065 Words

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